Topic: Systems (Page 6)

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πŸ”— George PΓ³lya: How to Solve It (1945)

πŸ”— Mathematics πŸ”— Books πŸ”— Systems

How to Solve It (1945) is a small volume by mathematician George PΓ³lya describing methods of problem solving.

Discussed on

πŸ”— Unintended consequences

πŸ”— Philosophy πŸ”— Systems πŸ”— Philosophy/Social and political philosophy πŸ”— Sociology πŸ”— Philosophy/Ethics πŸ”— Philosophy/Metaphysics

In the social sciences, unintended consequences (sometimes unanticipated consequences or unforeseen consequences) are outcomes of a purposeful action that are not intended or foreseen. The term was popularised in the twentieth century by American sociologist Robert K. Merton.

Unintended consequences can be grouped into three types:

  • Unexpected benefit: A positive unexpected benefit (also referred to as luck, serendipity or a windfall).
  • Unexpected drawback: An unexpected detriment occurring in addition to the desired effect of the policy (e.g., while irrigation schemes provide people with water for agriculture, they can increase waterborne diseases that have devastating health effects, such as schistosomiasis).
  • Perverse result: A perverse effect contrary to what was originally intended (when an intended solution makes a problem worse).

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πŸ”— Holon

πŸ”— Philosophy πŸ”— Systems πŸ”— Philosophy/Philosophy of mind πŸ”— Philosophy/Metaphysics

A holon (Greek: ὅλον, from ὅλος, holos, 'whole' and -ΞΏΞ½, -on, 'part') is something that is simultaneously a whole in and of itself, as well as a part of a larger whole. In other words, holons can be understood as the constituent part–wholes of a hierarchy.

The holon represents a way to overcome the dichotomy between parts and wholes, as well as a way to account for both the self-assertive and the integrative tendencies of organisms. The term was coined by Arthur Koestler in The Ghost in the Machine (1967). In Koestler's formulations, a holon is something that has integrity and identity while simultaneously being a part of a larger system; it is a subsystem of a greater system.

Holons are sometimes discussed in the context of self-organizing holarchic open (SOHO) systems.